About

Ben Althouse is a Research Scientist at the Institute for Disease Modeling and an Omidyar Fellow at the Santa Fe Institute. He holds a PhD in Epidemiology and a Master of Science in Biostatistics from the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, where he was awarded an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship. Additionally, he has Bachelor of Science degrees in Mathematics and Biochemistry from the University of Washington. His previous work includes mathematical modeling of sylvatic dengue virus transmission in nonhuman primates in Senegal, examining the role of antimicrobial use on the evolution of drug resistance, and utilizing Twitter as a model system of co-infection dynamics. He has also employed novel data sources such as Google searches, Twitter, and Wikipedia article views for population-level surveillance of infectious and chronic diseases. Ben is an Affiliate Faculty member in the Department of Biology at New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, and an Affiliate Assistant Professor at the Information School at UW.

Research topics

• Environmental health
• Telecommunications
• Medicine
• Virology
• Biology
• Engineering

Selected publications

• P-1429. Uptake and Series Completion with Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine by Social Determinants of Health among Children in the United States

  Open Forum Infectious Diseases · 2026-01-01

  articleOpen access

  Abstract Background In the United States (US), children with unmet social and financial resources may face challenges completing well-child visits and immunizations. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) are recommended as a 4-dose series at 2, 4, 6, and 12-15 months. The objective of this study was to characterize PCV uptake and series completion according to social determinants of health (SDOH) among children with commercial insurance. Methods Commercially insured children with continuous enrollment from 0-24 months of age were divided into four period cohorts: (Cohort 1) 2017-2019, (Cohort 2) 2020-2022, (Cohort 3) 2021-2023, and (Cohort 4) 2023-2024. PCV doses and individual-level characteristics were identified using healthcare claims from Optum’s Clinformatics DataMart®. Children were linked to community-level SDOH characteristics from the US Census Bureau’s American Community Survey and Department of Agriculture’s Urban Influence Codes using 5-digit ZIP codes. Cumulative probabilities of 3-dose primary and full series completion were evaluated using Kaplan-Meier analyses for each cohort overall and by SDOH characteristics. Results Between 31,021 and 45,621 children were included in each cohort. In each cohort, around half of children were male, 13% to 15% had a risk condition or premature birth. Additionally, most were from the Midwest or South regions of the US, had a low area deprivation index (ADI), a high Theil’s index, and an urban residence (Table 1). Primary series completion by 12 months and full series completion by 24 months of age was highest in Cohort 2 and lowest in Cohort 4. Compared to earlier cohorts, series completion at 12 months decreased among children in Cohorts 3 and 4 for both ADI and Theil’s index. In general, series completion was lowest in the highest ADI tertile and in the lowest Theil’s tertile. Children in rural settings had lower series completion than children in urban settings (Tables 2-3). Conclusion PCV uptake was lowest among Cohort 4, potentially reflecting declines in uptake after the COVID-19 pandemic. Uptake was also lower among children residing in rural communities or in areas with greater deprivation. Differences in PCV uptake could contribute to disparities in disease incidence among children and could be addressed with targeted vaccination programs. Disclosures Amanda C. Miles, MPH, Pfizer: Employee of Pfizer Inc.|Pfizer: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Christopher G. Prener, PhD, Pfizer: Employee|Pfizer: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Huihua Li, MS, MD, Pfizer Pharmaceutical: employee|Pfizer Pharmaceutical: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Alison E. Randall, MPH, PMP, Pfizer: Employment|Pfizer: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Benjamin Althouse, PhD, Pfizer, Inc: Employee|Pfizer, Inc: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Mark Rozenbaum, PhD, M.B.A., Pfizer: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Lindsay Grant, PhD, MPH, Pfizer: Employee|Pfizer: Stocks/Bonds (Private Company) Ronika Alexander, M.Ed, Pfizer, Inc.: employee|Pfizer, Inc.: Stocks/Bonds (Private Company) Paul Palmer, PhD, Pfizer Inc: Employee|Pfizer Inc: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Maria J. Tort, PhD, Pfizer, Inc: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company)

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Seroprevalence of dengue virus antibodies among multiple species of non-human primates in Senegal suggests that sylvatic dengue virus is maintained in non-primate reservoirs in this region

  PLoS neglected tropical diseases · 2026-01-27

  articleOpen access

  Dengue virus (DENV) circulates in two distinct transmission cycles: one, termed the sylvatic cycle, is enzootic to canopy-living hosts, including non-human primates and primatophilic mosquitoes, and the other, initiated by spillover from the sylvatic cycle, is endemic to humans and anthropophilic mosquitoes. Transmission dynamics of sylvatic DENV in non-human hosts has not been well characterized, and the identity of reservoir and amplification hosts is still to be determined. We investigated the role of the three common species of monkeys in the Kédougou region of Senegal in the sylvatic transmission cycle of DENV. Longitudinal surveillance of primatophilic mosquitoes in this region dating back to the 1970s revealed that sylvatic DENV-2, the only one of the four DENV serotypes found to circulate in a sylvatic transmission in West Africa, is amplified cyclically at intervals of approximately eight years based on the isolation of the virus from mosquitoes. Subsequent to the detection of DENV-2 in primatophilic mosquitoes in Kédougou in 2008, 737 monkeys, including 3 species: Chlorocebus sabaeus (n = 219), Erythrocebus patas (n = 78), and Papio papio (n = 440) were captured from 2010 to 2012 for the current study. Their age was determined using dentition and other morphological measurements. Evidence of DENV-2 infection was detected via neutralizing antibody in sera, and the annual hazard of DENV-2 infection was estimated per species using catalytic models. These analyses revealed annual hazard ranging from 0.09 to 0.42 across the three species, consistent with high levels of transmission in these populations. Furthermore, seroprevalence was moderate in individuals under one year of age, despite the lack of detection of DENV-2 in primatophilic mosquitoes for up to three years prior, suggesting that non-primate hosts contributed to the maintenance of sylvatic DENV in this region.

  PublisherDOI

• P-629. The Health and Economic Impact of the PCV15 and PCV20 Priming Series during the First Year of Life in the US

  Open Forum Infectious Diseases · 2025-01-29

  articleOpen access

  Abstract Background Two pneumococcal conjugate vaccines, 15- (PCV15) and 20- (PCV20) valent formulations, are currently recommended for US infants in a 3+1 schedule. The first 3 doses are administered during the first year of life (‘priming doses’ at 2, 4, and 6 months) while the booster dose is given at 12 to 15 months. This study evaluated the health and economic impact of priming doses within the first year of life. Methods Using a decision-analytic model, we calculated the health outcomes and economic implications from a healthcare payer perspective over a 12-month duration. Our epidemiological data were drawn from peer-reviewed studies. Estimates for vaccine effectiveness on invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), inpatient and outpatient community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), and otitis media (OM) were extrapolated from established PCV13 effectiveness and PCV7 efficacy studies and adjusted for current serotype coverage of PCV15 and PCV20. Direct medical costs related to the treatment of IPD, CAP and OM were extracted from the literature and inflated to 2024 dollars. Aligned with CDC assumptions, we projected that children would experience 75.6% of the full vaccine effectiveness in their first year of life. Results Vaccination of newborns in the United States at 2, 4, and 6 months using PCV20 could potentially prevent an estimated 137 cases of IIPD, 3,150 cases of pneumonia, 54,000 cases of OM, and 38 deaths during the first year of life. This could result in savings of approximately 76M dollars in direct medical costs. When compared to universal administration of PCV15, PCV20 offers greater case prevention due to its broader serotype coverage. Specifically, using PCV15 instead of PCV20 would result in 54 fewer prevented cases of IPD, 26,200 fewer cases of otitis media, 1,526 fewer pneumonia cases, and 16 fewer prevented deaths. Conclusion This study showed that, in the US, vaccinating with PCV20 would yield a significantly greater health and economic return during the first 12 months of life compared to PCV15 due to the 5 additional serotypes covered by PCV20. Disclosures Mark Rozenbaum, PhD, M.B.A., Pfizer: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Benjamin Althouse, PhD, Pfizer: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Maria J. Tort, PhD, Pfizer Inc: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Alejandro D. Cane, MD, PhD, Pfizer: Employee|Pfizer: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company)|Pfizer: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company) Raymond Farkouh, PhD, Pfizer: Stocks/Bonds (Public Company)

  PublisherDOI

• Effectiveness of a Single Dose of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Against Invasive Pneumococcal Disease in Children: A Systematic Literature Review

  Infectious Diseases and Therapy · 2025-08-19

  reviewOpen access

  INTRODUCTION: While pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) are typically administered to infants using a three- or four-dose regimen, children may receive less immunogenic regimens due to missed doses or alternative schedules. The level of direct protection in children vaccinated with a single dose of PCV remains unclear. METHODS: We performed a systematic review of observational studies published during 2000-2024 on vaccine effectiveness (VE) of a single dose of PCV7, PCV10, or PCV13 against vaccine-type invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in children. Results were stratified by vaccine and age at administration, and meta-analysis performed to generate pooled VE estimates. RESULTS: Twenty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria: nine reported VE for PCV7, four for PCV10, seven for PCV13, and seven reported VE separately for more than one PCV. For PCV7, pooled VE was 64.6% (95% CI 47.3, 76.2) when administered < 12 months or age unspecified and 81.6% (95% CI 72.5, 87.7) when given ≥ 12 months. For PCV10, pooled VE was 73.0% (95% CI - 29.4, 94.4) when age at vaccination was unspecified, and one study reported 68.0% (95% CI 17.6, 87.6) VE when administered ≥ 12 months. For PCV13, pooled VE was 56.8% (95% CI 44.1, 66.6) when administered < 12 months or age unspecified, and 79.2% (95% CI 65.5, 87.5) when given ≥ 12 months. CONCLUSIONS: Available evidence demonstrates that a single dose of PCV provides protection against vaccine-type IPD, especially when administered after age 12 months. While complete vaccination according to licensed schedules provides optimal protection, our findings support single-dose catch-up programs for toddlers. Potential single-dose strategies for infants in humanitarian emergencies warrant further exploration.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Inside-out: modelling the link between Zika virus viral dynamics within hosts and transmission to vectors across host species and virus strains

  Journal of The Royal Society Interface · 2025-09-30

  articleOpen access

  Epidemiological models of mosquito-borne virus transmission often lack accurate estimates of host-to-vector transmission probability. Here, we estimated this probability for two strains of Zika virus (ZIKV)—one sylvatic and one human-endemic—from two monkey species to Aedes albopictus mosquitoes using experimental infection data. Viral dynamics did not differ between monkey species, although one (cynomolgus macaque) is a native ZIKV host and the other (squirrel monkey) a novel host, but did differ between strains, with viremia for the human-endemic strain peaking later and lower than the sylvatic strain. Only the sylvatic strain was transmitted to mosquitoes. Within mosquitoes, anatomical barriers influence viral progression to salivary glands, complicating host infectiousness estimation. We quantified the probability of viral dissemination to the legs in Ae. albopictus , which increased with host viral load and was higher after feeding on squirrel monkeys than on cynomolgus macaques. We also found a positive relationship between virus titre in mosquito legs and virus detection in saliva after a 14-day extrinsic incubation period. Combining these factors, we found that squirrel monkeys were on average 1.5 times more infectious to Ae. albopictus than cynomolgus macaques. These estimates will help assess ZIKV’s potential to establish an enzootic, sylvatic cycle in the Americas.

  PublisherDOI

• Can a selfie promote public engagement with skin cancer?

  UNC Libraries · 2025-11-11

  articleOpen access
  PublisherDOI

• Conceptual Methodological Framework for Incorporating Antimicrobial Resistance Considerations in Economic Models for Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines

  Infectious Diseases and Therapy · 2025-10-27 · 1 citations

  articleOpen access

  INTRODUCTION: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a substantial global health threat and economic burden. Vaccines reduce antibiotic use and prevent resistant infections, combating AMR. However, their economic and health benefits are often underestimated because economic analyses do not consider vaccines' broader impacts, such as effects on AMR. We conceptualize a framework for estimating the impacts of vaccination on AMR using pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) as an example. METHODS: The proposed framework includes three pathways: population and pathogen, care, and health outcomes. Operationalizing this framework requires extensive detailed data, such as serotype distribution, disease incidence, resistance profile, antibiotic use, and treatment failure, derived from multiple sources, such as national surveillance systems, epidemiological studies, and hospital records, which are often unavailable. However, considering vaccines' impact on AMR is crucial because of potential future health and cost issues. Therefore, we adopted a simplified framework leveraging all available data related to antibiotic prescriptions and resistance to estimate the impact on critical outcomes. RESULTS: Routine PCV20 vaccination was estimated to prevent up to 23,509,406 antibiotic prescriptions and 14,050,115 antibiotic-resistant infections over 25 years compared to PCV13 and 12,087,128 antibiotic prescriptions and 7,245,908 antibiotic-resistant infections compared to PCV15, demonstrating the potential impact of PCV infant immunization on AMR cases and antibiotic prescriptions. CONCLUSIONS: A simplified model can effectively incorporate critical AMR parameters for a more comprehensive evaluation of PCVs. Our framework also identifies key data gaps that should be addressed for future modeling efforts.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• The Charlie Sheen Effect on Rapid In-home Human Immunodeficiency Virus Test Sales

  UNC Libraries · 2025-11-11

  articleOpen access
  PublisherDOI

• Inside-Out: Modeling the link between Zika virus viral dynamics within hosts and transmission to vectors across host species and virus strains

  bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · 2025-04-26 · 1 citations

  preprintOpen access

  Abstract Epidemiological models of mosquito-borne virus transmission often lack accurate estimates of host-to-vector transmission probability. Here, we estimated this probability for two strains of Zika virus (ZIKV)—one sylvatic and one human-endemic—from two monkey species to Aedes albopictus mosquitoes using experimental infection data. Viral dynamics did not differ between monkey species, although one (cynomolgus macaque) is a native ZIKV host and the other (squirrel monkey) a novel host, but differed between strains, with viremia for the human-endemic strain peaking later and lower than the sylvatic strain. Only the sylvatic strain was transmitted to mosquitoes. In mosquitoes, anatomical barriers influence viral progression to salivary glands, complicating host infectiousness estimation. We quantified the probability of viral dissemination to the legs in Ae. albopictus , which increased with host viral load and was higher after feeding on squirrel monkeys than on cynomolgus macaques. We also found a positive relationship between virus titer in mosquito legs and virus detection in saliva after a 14-day extrinsic incubation period. Combining these factors, we found that squirrel monkeys were on average 1.5 times more infectious to Ae. albopictus than cynomolgus macaques. These estimates will help assess ZIKV’s potential to establish an enzootic, sylvatic cycle in the Americas.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• A Novel Approach to Estimate the Impact of PCV20 Immunization in Children by Incorporating Indirect Effects to Generate the Number Needed to Vaccinate

  Vaccines · 2025-07-29 · 1 citations

  articleOpen access

  Background/Objectives: The number needed to vaccinate (NNV) is a metric commonly used to evaluate the public health impact of a vaccine as it represents the number of individuals that must be vaccinated to prevent one case of disease. Traditional calculations may underestimate vaccine benefits by neglecting indirect effects and duration of protection (DOP), resulting in NNV overestimation. This study evaluated the NNV for the pediatric 20-valent pneumococcal conjugate (PCV20) US immunization program, as compared to PCV13, with a unique approach to NNV. Methods: A multi-cohort, population-based Markov model accounting for indirect effects was employed to calculate the NNV of PCV20 to avert a case of pneumococcal disease, invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), hospitalized non-bacteremic pneumonia (NBP), ambulatory NBP, and otitis media (OM), as well as to prevent antibiotic-resistant cases and antibiotic prescriptions. Results: The mean NNV over a 25-year time horizon to prevent one case of pneumococcal disease was 6, with NNVs of 854 for IPD, 106 for hospitalized NBP, 25 for outpatient NBP, and 9 for OM, 11 for a course of antibiotic, and 4 for resistant disease. The mean NNV per year decreased over time, reflecting the DOP and increasing indirect effects over time. Conclusions: This study presents a novel approach to NNVs and shows that relatively few vaccinations are required to prevent disease. The decrease in NNV over time highlights the necessity of including DOP and indirect effects in NNV calculations, ensuring a more realistic assessment of a vaccine’s impact.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

Recent grants

• Trade-offs between Arbovirus Transmission and Clearance in Native and Novel Hosts

  NIH · $2.9M · 2020–2025

Frequent coauthors

• Laurent Hébert‐Dufresne

  University of Vermont

  150 shared

• Samuel V. Scarpino

  Northeastern University

  137 shared

• John W. Ayers

  University of California, San Diego

  97 shared

• Laura Skrip

  88 shared

• Mark Dredze

  52 shared

• Seth M. Noar

  University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

  52 shared

• Kurt M. Ribisl

  University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

  43 shared

• Eric C. Leas

  Qualcomm (United States)

  42 shared

Labs

• Research Centers and GroupsPI

Education

• Ph.D., Epidemiology

  Johns Hopkins University

  2013

• M.S., Biostatistics

  Johns Hopkins University

  2010

• B.S., Mathematics

  University of Washington

  2008

• B.S., Biochemistry

  University of Washington

  2008

Awards & honors

• NSF Graduate Research Fellowship