About

Dr. Christopher Ball is an assistant professor in the Department of Journalism at the College of Media, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He holds a PhD in Media and Information Studies from Michigan State University, along with graduate certifications in Educational Technology and Serious Game Design and Research. His academic background also includes an MS in Applied Sociology from Clemson University and a BA in Sociology from Augusta State University. Prior to his current position, he was a research assistant and instructor at Michigan State University, where he worked extensively on grant-funded research projects and taught courses related to media and technology. Dr. Ball's research interests focus on the influence of new technologies on society and how these technologies can be studied and harnessed for research, education, and outreach purposes. Specifically, his work involves the use of interactive media and technologies such as video games, virtual worlds, and virtual reality to foster pro-social outcomes and experiential learning across the life course. He has published collaborative research in top-tier journals including Information, Communication & Society; Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking; the Journal of Applied Gerontology; the Journal of Medical Internet Research Mental Health; and Games and Culture. His background includes designing and testing educational virtual world programs, and he has contributed to understanding how emerging media can be utilized for societal benefit.

Research topics

• Computer Science
• Sociology
• Social Science
• Political Science
• World Wide Web
• Mathematics
• Psychology
• Data science
• Engineering
• Multimedia
• Business
• Medicine
• Public relations
• Internet privacy

Selected publications

• The Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) Divide: Exploring the Individual Factors Influencing GenAI Competency, Adoption Readiness, and Psychological Barriers

  Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · 2026-02-17

  article1st authorCorresponding

  Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI), a branch of AI capable of producing novel content from human input, is poised to transform various aspects of society. However, the benefits and challenges of GenAI adoption are not equally distributed, contributing to a new layer of digital inequality, the GenAI divide. This study examines the individual factors associated with psychological barriers, GenAI competency, and adoption readiness. Using data from a stratified online survey of 305 participants, the study explores sociodemographic variables (e.g., sex, age, race, education, and income), as well as competency factors (e.g., operational and creative skills) and psychological factors (e.g., attitudes toward AI, GenAI decision reliance, and self-efficacy). Findings reveal that operational skills and comfort with AI were significantly associated with lower anxiety and higher adoption readiness, whereas negative technology attitudes were associated with increased barriers. Furthermore, greater reliance on GenAI for decision-making was associated with lower self-assessed competency, suggesting a compensatory mechanism in which less confident users may increasingly depend on automated recommendations. These results highlight the multi-dimensional nature of the GenAI divide, emphasizing the interplay between individual-level factors and inequality-related outcomes. The study underscores the need for targeted interventions, such as AI literacy programs and supportive digital communities, to address these disparities and promote equitable access to the benefits of GenAI. By identifying key factors associated with GenAI adoption, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of digital inequality in the age of generative AI technologies.

  PublisherDOI

• Beyond the hype: longitudinal trends in virtual reality perceptions beyond the COVID-19 pandemic

  Information Research an international electronic journal · 2025-03-11

  articleOpen access1st authorCorresponding

  Introduction: The metaverse is shaped significantly by spatial computing technologies, such as virtual reality (VR). However, the promise of a VR-facilitated metaverse remains unfulfilled, and public perceptions of these technologies are fluid. Therefore, this study investigates perceptions and intentions to use VR over three years, both during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Method: We conducted three waves of cross-sectional surveys from 2020 to 2022 (N = 928), via Amazon Mechanical Turk. Analysis: Data were analysed using OLS regression and mediation-moderation analysis using Hayes' PROCESS Model 85. Results: Respondents' perceptions of VR as both easy to use and useful predict their intentions to use the technology, with usefulness being the stronger predictor. When examining changes over time, in 2021, VR ownership was not a predictor of perceived usefulness, and it was associated with a decrease in intentions to use VR, potentially reflecting the dynamics of the hype cycle. The direct and indirect effects of COVID-19 on VR acceptance persisted throughout all three years of the study but appear to be diminishing with time. Conclusion: This study contributes to the theoretical and practical discourse on the metaverse's development, advocating for a nuanced understanding of VR's role as a critical component of this digital frontier.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Complication Rates After Cervical Laminectomy and Fusion Versus Cervical Laminoplasty in Patients of Advanced Age

  Clinical Spine Surgery A Spine Publication · 2025-03-18

  article

  Study Design: Retrospective cohort study. Objective: To compare the complications following cervical laminectomy with instrumented fusion (LF) versus cervical laminoplasty with reconstruction (LP) in patients of advanced age within a single surgeon cohort. Summary of Background Data: The prevalence of cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM), the most common cause of spinal cord dysfunction in adults, increases with advanced age. CSM is often effectively treated with one of a variety of surgical procedures, with the prevalent posterior options including laminectomy and fusion or laminoplasty. Both of these procedures have been associated with increased morbidity and mortality in the elderly population. However, the risks of laminectomy and fusion versus laminoplasty have not yet been fully compared with each other as a function of age. The magnitude of the increased risk remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of advancing age in CSM patients undergoing either cervical laminectomy and fusion or laminoplasty within a single surgeon cohort. Methods: This study retrospectively identified patients undergoing primary laminectomy and fusion or laminoplasty procedures indicated for CSM in a single surgeon cohort (2004–2023). Data from the patients’ medical background, procedure, inpatient hospital admission, and outpatient follow-up were collected. Patients were subdivided into those younger than 65 years of age and those 65 years of age or older for analysis. Multivariable logistic regression was then utilized to analyze the relationship between age group and a variety of endpoints, including the rate of adverse events, reoperation rates within 1 year, ongoing opioid use, and peripheral nerve injury. Results: In our cohort of 365 patients, the age group had no influence on which procedure was performed, laminectomy and fusion versus laminoplasty ( P =0.91). Across all ages, when compared with laminectomy and fusion, laminoplasty was associated with significantly lower odds of having an adverse postoperative event [OR=0.12 (0.04–0.39), P =0.001], a complication [OR=0.08 (0.02–0.35), P =0.001], a peripheral nerve injury [OR=0.08 (0.01–0.73), P =0.03], or using opioids past 6 months postoperative [OR=0.17 (0.06–0.46), P =0.001]. Interestingly, the younger laminectomy and fusion group had significantly higher odds of postoperative adverse events when compared with the elderly laminoplasty group (17.5% vs. 4.6%, P =0.01), despite a lower prevalence of medical comorbidities. Conclusions: Findings from our retrospective cohort support the implementation of cervical laminoplasty as a safe treatment option in patients of advanced age with cervical spondylotic myelopathy. Data from our population suggest that cervical laminoplasty, in appropriately selected patients, has a lower rate of adverse postoperative events, complications, and peripheral nerve injuries, as well as decreased likelihood of prolonged opioid use for patients across all age groups. Level of Evidence: Level III.

  PublisherDOI

• The Influence of <scp>AI</scp> Literacy on User's Trust in <scp>AI</scp> in Practical Scenarios: A Digital Divide Pilot Study

  Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology · 2024-10-01 · 25 citations

  articleOpen accessSenior author

  ABSTRACT This study explores the impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) literacy on trust in AI across critical sectors, including transportation, healthcare, and social relationships. An online survey of 300 participants was conducted to examine trust levels in six practical AI application scenarios. The findings revealed that individuals with advanced AI literacy consistently demonstrate higher trust across all scenarios. In contrast, those with intermediate AI literacy exhibit more skepticism, particularly in high‐stakes contexts such as transportation and healthcare. This result indicates that the disparities in AI literacy can significantly shape trust levels, and the context of AI use matters. Therefore, targeted educational programs are needed to improve AI literacy, rectify misconceptions, and promote broader acceptance and trust in AI technologies. Further research should expand the demographic scope to further validate these findings and optimize educational initiatives for inclusive and equitable AI integration.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• The Perceived Impacts of COVID-19 on Users’ Acceptance of Virtual Reality Hardware: A Digital Divide Perspective

  American Behavioral Scientist · 2023-03-01 · 13 citations

  articleOpen access

  The COVID-19 pandemic has directly or indirectly impacted everyone around the globe. However, the pandemic and its long-term consequences have not been distributed evenly within societies. These disparities have in many cases intensified existing social and economic inequalities such as the uptake of novel digital technologies. This study investigates the influence of the pandemic on the acceptance of virtual reality (VR) hardware within the framework of the technology acceptance model (TAM) and the digital divide/inequality scholarship. A survey was designed to examine the perceived impact of COVID-19 on the potential adoption of VR hardware. Specifically, this study included variables related to perceived ease of using VR hardware (ease of use), perceived usefulness of VR hardware (usefulness), intention to use VR hardware (use intention), and intention to purchase VR hardware (purchase intention). The predictors included two digital divide variables (material access and VR experience) and two other variables (COVID-19 and demographic variables). A total of 298 participants were recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk. The results suggest that the perceived impacts of COVID-19 positively predicted participants’ perceived usefulness of VR hardware as well as their intention to use and purchase VR hardware.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Generative Artificial Intelligence ( <scp>GAI</scp> ) Divide: An Empirical Examination of the <scp>Micro–Macro</scp> Factors that Predict <scp>GAI</scp> Knowledge and Use

  Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology · 2023-10-01 · 6 citations

  articleOpen access1st authorCorresponding

  ABSTRACT Generative artificial intelligence (GAI), a branch of AI capable of generating new content from human input has the potential to impact every aspect of our society. However, as with any emerging technology, the benefits and detriments of GAI may not be evenly distributed, leading to digital inequality. Aspects like AI access, effectively usage, and usage outcomes could define this emerging and evolving GAI divide. To fill the current research gap on GAI inequality, this study aims to empirically explore the factors that may contribute to a GAI divide to ensure that the benefits of this technology are distributed equitably throughout society. To address these challenges, An online survey will be conducted to examine both macro‐ and micro‐level factors that may potentially proliferate and ameliorate the GAI divide.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• The Effects of Nature-Based Travel in Virtual Reality: The Role of Spatial Presence and Narrative Engagement

  Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · 2023-06-13 · 11 citations

  articleOpen access1st authorCorresponding

  , participation in nature tours has positively impacted environmental attitudes and behaviors. Unfortunately, while psychologically beneficial, nature-based tourism can hurt the environment through a myriad of factors. Therefore, we must continue to explore ways to make the benefits of nature-based travel more sustainable and impactful. Research suggests that nature-based travel in virtual reality (VR) may impart numerous travel benefits, such as improving conservational behavior and interconnectedness with nature. While these early findings are promising, questions remain regarding the theoretical mechanisms underlying the effects of nature-based VR travel. Therefore, this study explores how VR may provide an avenue to make nature tourism more environmentally friendly while simultaneously making people more environmentally connected and conscious. Furthermore, a theoretical framework is posited that combines concepts from the spatial presence and narrative persuasion literature to help explain the effects. To accomplish these goals, an experiment was conducted using a two-condition (VR travel vs. TV control) between-subjects factorial design with random assignment. The participants were 66 college students from a large Midwestern University in the United States. Results indicated that there wasn't a statistically significant difference between the VR travel condition and the television (TV) control condition regarding the environmental outcome variables. However, while the nature-based VR travel experience did not appear to influence the environmental outcome variables directly, it did indirectly affect them through the mediating roles of spatial presence and narrative engagement.

  PublisherDOI

• Virtual reality adoption during the COVID-19 pandemic: A uses and gratifications perspective

  Telematics and Informatics · 2021 · 149 citations

  1st authorCorresponding
  • Computer Science
  • Political Science
  • Internet privacy

  The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted all aspects of people's lives, including how we work, play, learn, exercise, and socialize. Virtual reality (VR) technology has the potential to mitigate many of the challenges brought about by the pandemic, which has spurred increased adoption. However, relatively low adoption overall and limited software still restrict the power of VR to address COVID-19 difficulties effectively. This study examines how the perceived impacts of COVID-19 might lead to different VR uses and gratifications and device ownership / variability. Furthermore, we investigate the importance of social interactivity within VR for increasing adoption intentions. We surveyed 298 Amazon Mechanical Turk users during the Fall of 2020. Results indicate that the pandemic's perceived impacts influenced the likelihood of acquiring VR for education, tourism, and work. For VR ownership and variability, those who purchased VR during the pandemic were more likely to report buying it for work. Those with access to high-end VR hardware were more likely to report a broader range of uses, including socializing, health, and telemedicine. Validating the importance of various applications during the pandemic, we found that the desire for social interactivity mediates the impacts of COVID-19 on future adoption intentions. Theoretically, we propose several gratifications sought via the use of VR during the pandemic. Practically, we discuss recommendations for future VR research, marketing, and software design.

  PublisherDOI

• Trends Related to the Treatment of Superior Labral Tears at a Single Institution.

  PubMed · 2021-01-01 · 4 citations

  articleOpen access

  BACKGROUND: As preferred treatment options for superior labral tears continue to evolve, this study aims to describe the recent longitudinal trends in the treatment of SLAP tears in a sub-specialized practice at a single institution. We hypothesized that there was a trend toward biceps tenodesis over repair for Type II SLAP lesions. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed using an institutional billing database to identify all patients with a SLAP tear who underwent surgical intervention between January 2002 and January 2016. Procedural codes associated with the surgery were analyzed to determine type of treatment each patient received. RESULTS: ). CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that over the 14-year study period the rate of labral repairs for SLAP tears has decreased significantly and that these repairs have been directed towards a younger patient population.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Digital inequalities 3.0: Emergent inequalities in the information age

  First Monday · 2020 · 94 citations

  • Computer Science
  • Sociology
  • Computer Science

  Marking the 25th anniversary of the “digital divide,” we continue our metaphor of the digital inequality stack by mapping out the rapidly evolving nature of digital inequality using a broad lens. We tackle complex, and often unseen, inequalities spawned by the platform economy, automation, big data, algorithms, cybercrime, cybersafety, gaming, emotional well-being, assistive technologies, civic engagement, and mobility. These inequalities are woven throughout the digital inequality stack in many ways including differentiated access, use, consumption, literacies, skills, and production. While many users are competent prosumers who nimbly work within different layers of the stack, very few individuals are “full stack engineers” able to create or recreate digital devices, networks, and software platforms as pure producers. This new frontier of digital inequalities further differentiates digitally skilled creators from mere users. Therefore, we document emergent forms of inequality that radically diminish individuals’ agency and augment the power of technology creators, big tech, and other already powerful social actors whose dominance is increasing.

  PublisherDOI

Frequent coauthors

• Kuo-Ting Huang

  University of Pittsburgh

  12 shared

• Shelia R. Cotten

  11 shared

• Daniel Latouche

  9 shared

• Francis Cruise

  University College Dublin

  9 shared

• John Franks

  Northwestern University

  9 shared

• D Macdermott

  University College Dublin

  9 shared

• Percy Bernard

  Royal College of Surgeons of England

  9 shared

• William E. Connolly

  9 shared

Labs

• College of MediaPI

Education

• Ph.D., Media and Information Studies

  Michigan State University

• M.S., Applied Sociology

  Clemson University

• B.A., Sociology

  Augusta State University