Regulatory compliance and support for altered management of the exotic pet trade

Conservation Biology · 2026-03-19

Globally, the exotic pet trade has contributed to species invasion, disease, and animal welfare risks. Although scientists have advocated for increased trade regulation, the success of management and regulatory efforts depends on compliance by participants in the exotic pet trade. We used a regulatory compliance framework to investigate exotic pet trade participants' support for proposed changes to regulations. In 2023, we administered online surveys to 1653 exotic pet owners, breeders, and sellers in the United States. Survey respondents largely supported efforts to ensure that animals in the exotic pet trade are captive bred, appropriately housed, and provided with veterinary care. On average, respondents also supported changes to federal regulations to improve consistency in species that can be traded as pets and imported into the United States. However, individuals who opposed regulatory changes considered regulations unfair, reactive, and inconsistently enforced, distrusted management agencies, and advocated for government consultation with the exotic pet trade when designing regulations. Proponents of regulatory changes expressed moral obligation to obey regulations applied to the exotic pet trade, agreed that regulations pertaining to the exotic pet trade are ethically valid, demonstrated greater trust in government agencies, and considered regulations fair, equitable, and consistent. Our findings suggest there is a cohort of exotic pet trade participants who would collaborate with government agencies to reduce the risks associated with the pet trade, but agencies should also address pet trade participants' concerns about gaps in regulation and failures in enforcement strategies to build trust between exotic pet trade participants and government agencies.

Integrating Environmental <scp>DNA</scp> Into Early Detection Efforts for an Invasive Terrestrial Beetle

Environmental DNA · 2026-03-01

ABSTRACT The economic cost of invasive species continues to rise as more species are introduced globally every year. One of the most effective ways to reduce these costs is to implement robust early detection and rapid response (EDRR) programs, in which invasive populations are detected at low enough abundances that control efforts are effective and cost‐efficient. Environmental DNA (eDNA) surveys have become increasingly common in aquatic invasive species EDRR programs, but they have not been explored for use in terrestrial ecosystem invasions. Here, we investigate the deployment of eDNA surveys to detect invasive coconut rhinoceros beetles ( Oryctes rhinoceros ; CRB) on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi, USA. CRB impose substantial economic and cultural impacts across Pacific Island nations and territories, with the potential to spread globally. We designed a sensitive, species‐specific molecular assay targeting a 64‐bp segment of the COI region. We tested four field sampling methods at CRB‐positive sites, with roller and mulch‐rinse samples successfully capturing CRB eDNA. We estimated these two methods had per‐sample detection probabilities of 0.47 and 0.54, respectively, in sites with known CRB presence. We then evaluated how these methods performed at low‐ or unknown‐CRB‐abundance sites. The overall per‐sample probability of detection dropped to 0.09 and 0.06 for the roller and mulch methods, respectively, due to low eDNA concentrations in samples. Finally, we compared eDNA detection probability with co‐located pheromone‐baited traps to assess the performance of eDNA against a standard early‐detection protocol. We found that roller eDNA sampling exhibited twice the per‐sample detection probability of traps, with mulch sampling showing comparable patterns, though with greater uncertainty. Our results indicate that eDNA surveys for CRB can be a feasible and useful addition to EDRR programs in Hawaiʻi, and perhaps other sites where CRB are likely to be introduced.

The challenge of attaining conservation outcomes in a complex system: Agency personnel’s and academic researchers’ perspectives on the wicked problem of the exotic pet trade

NeoBiota · 2025-02-27 · 3 citations

The exotic pet trade is a wicked problem involving economic, social, political, ethical, and environmental dimensions, which cannot be resolved using conventional management strategies that are informed by restricted expertise. In 2023, we surveyed 26 government agency personnel and 57 academic researchers in the United States who focus on the risks of the exotic pet trade to ascertain how experts characterize the wicked problem of the exotic pet trade and their support for conventional versus collaborative management of the trade. Both academic and agency respondents framed the ecological risks associated with the exotic pet trade similarly, expressing greatest concern about species invasions and pathogen transmission to native species. Respondents exhibited low levels of trust in stakeholders in the exotic pet trade, considering it likely that all stakeholders (except the commercial industry) would fail to comply with pet trade regulations. Agency respondents tended to agree that current regulations have been effective in mitigating invasion risks while academic respondents disagreed that current regulations adequately mitigate the invasion and disease risks of the pet trade or overexploitation of species. Agency respondents were more likely to agree that regulations are enforceable. All respondents were supportive of additional federal regulations of the exotic pet trade. Our findings are consistent with the argument that wicked problems are perpetuated because managers and scientists default to conventional cause-effect problem statements and top-down management approaches that focus on management structure and execution. Transitioning from top-down regulatory approaches to collaborative decision making, in which agencies, scientists, and exotic pet trade stakeholders work together to resolve the wicked problem of the exotic pet trade, would build trust and allow for flexible, adaptive management of the trade.

Extreme events drive rapid and dynamic range fluctuations

Trends in Ecology & Evolution · 2025-07-17 · 7 citations

The magnitude of legal wildlife trade and implications for species survival

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · 2025-01-07 · 15 citations

The unsustainable use of wildlife is a primary driver of global biodiversity loss. No comprehensive global dataset exists on what species are in trade, their geographic origins, and trade's ultimate impacts, which limits our ability to sustainably manage trade. The United States is one of the world's largest importers of wildlife, with trade data compiled in the US Law Enforcement Management Information System (LEMIS). The LEMIS provides the most comprehensive publicly accessible wildlife trade database of non-the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) listed species. In total, 21,097 species and over 2.85 billion individuals were traded over the past 22 y (2000-2022). When LEMIS data are combined with CITES records, the United States imported over 29,445 wild species, including over 50% of all globally described species in some taxonomic groups. For most taxa, around half of the individuals are declared as sourced from the wild. Although the LEMIS provides the only means to assess trade volumes for many taxa, without any associated data on most wild populations, it is impossible to assess the impact on biodiversity, sustainability of trade, or any potential risk of pest or pathogen spread. These insights underscore the considerable underestimation of trade and the urgent need for other countries to adopt similar mechanisms to accurately record trade.

Correction: Understanding and managing introduction pathways into protected areas in a changing climate

Biological Invasions · 2025-03-01

Understanding and managing introduction pathways into protected areas in a changing climate

Biological Invasions · 2025-01-24 · 4 citations

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework 2030 calls for the conservation of 30% of the world’s ecosystems, focusing on protecting areas vital to biodiversity, identifying and managing invasive species introduction pathways, and minimizing the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. While protected areas (PAs) have historically limited the introduction, establishment, and spread of non-native species, climate change is likely to increase their susceptibility to invasion. Yet we know little about how pathways may shift in the future, making it difficult for managers to plan appropriately. This paper explores how climate change may affect primary and secondary pathways of introduction and presents an adaptive management approach to avoid, minimize, and mitigate impacts. Climate change has influenced introduction pathways by modifying human behaviors (e.g., forced migration and shifting travel and vacation destinations), and by altering transportation routes, natural dispersal mechanisms, and the environmental conditions along these pathways and in donor and receiver regions. These changes increase the risk of non-native species introductions and their subsequent spread within PAs. Implementing climate-smart adaptive biosecurity, an iterative process that includes the incorporation of new technologies and perspectives, will become increasingly important for invasive species prevention and management of PAs as it provides flexibility in management response and maximizes positive outcomes when resources are limited.

Can environmental <scp>DNA</scp> be used within pest insect agricultural biosecurity? Detecting khapra beetle within stored rice

Environmental DNA · 2024-07-01 · 6 citations

Abstract Environmental DNA (eDNA) has recently emerged as an effective tool for invasive species biosecurity. We explored the use of eDNA for the detection of khapra beetle ( Trogoderma granarium , Everts 1898), an invasive insect of cereal grains and other food products that has a high global economic impact. We developed a novel method for aggregating khapra beetle eDNA deposited in stored grain that entails washing a sample of rice, filtering the sample, and detecting trace beetle DNA using a standard qPCR workflow. To explore the performance of this method, we raised 500 khapra beetle larvae within 500 g of rice over a 14‐day period and then removed them. We then used this “spiked” rice to create a range of simulated densities of khapra beetle larvae. This lab approach mimics conditions that are comparable to field densities of ~1.4 to 180 beetles per 50 kg of rice (1/8 to 16 spiked rice grains per 100 g sample of clean rice), assuming DNA is uniformly distributed within the rice. We detected khapra beetle eDNA from all density levels tested. Logistic models revealed that eDNA amounts equivalent to what is left by ~1 khapra beetle larva in a 50 kg container of rice can be detected with 85% to &gt;97% certainty, depending on the number of qPCR technical replicates run per sample. Based on this model, we estimated that for one 50 kg container of rice where beetle DNA is uniformly distributed, a single sample of 100 g with six technical replicates would be sufficient to be &gt;99% certain that the container was free of khapra beetle eDNA (95% credible intervals: 97.7%–100%). Our results suggest that eDNA surveys may be useful as a cost‐effective, first‐step detection of khapra beetle in stored grain and provide a means to map the relative magnitude of khapra beetle transport pathways, informing allocation of conventional biosecurity inspection efforts.

Vertebrates in trade that pose high invasion risk to the United States

Biological Conservation · 2024-12-24 · 3 citations

The United States imports thousands of live vertebrate species annually as part of legal trade. Escapes and releases from captivity are major pathways of invasion, however, the risk posed by the thousands of imported vertebrate species has not been systematically assessed. We conducted a horizon scan that used a data-driven climate match to filter a list of nearly 15,000 taxa drawn from across the globe of imported fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals for rapid assessment by taxonomic experts. Experts evaluated 840 species and identified 32 (22 reptiles and 10 fishes) as having the highest risk for establishment, spread, and negative impacts. Of those high-risk species, the majority have the capacity to disrupt ecosystem processes via their role as top predators or the unique ecological niches that they occupy, while several of the snake species pose a threat to human health. High-risk species were often scored with high confidence while in contrast, low scores were attributed to a combination of ecological redundancy, low propagule pressure, or low climate match while low confidence arose from a lack of information in the literature (i.e., data deficiency). Our study therefore highlights legally imported species likely to cause the greatest harm with the recognition that many other species could also become invasive in the United States. The ranked list of vertebrate threats can be used to prioritize watchlists and inform the development of targeted regulations for importation can be applied to regions to provide a rapid, preliminary screening for large pools of potential invaders.

Curbing the major and growing threats from invasive alien species is urgent and achievable

Nature Ecology & Evolution · 2024-06-03 · 174 citations

Although invasive alien species have long been recognized as a major threat to nature and people, until now there has been no comprehensive global review of the status, trends, drivers, impacts, management and governance challenges of biological invasions. The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Thematic Assessment Report on Invasive Alien Species and Their Control (hereafter ‘IPBES invasive alien species assessment’) drew on more than 13,000 scientific publications and reports in 15 languages as well as Indigenous and local knowledge on all taxa, ecosystems and regions across the globe. Therefore, it provides unequivocal evidence of the major and growing threat of invasive alien species alongside ambitious but realistic approaches to manage biological invasions. The extent of the threat and impacts has been recognized by the 143 member states of IPBES who approved the summary for policymakers of this assessment. Here, the authors of the IPBES assessment outline the main findings of the IPBES invasive alien species assessment and highlight the urgency to act now. This Perspective highlights the global consensus on the urgency and growing threat of invasive alien species, and management needs, as found by the 2023 report on invasive alien species conducted by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES).